Investigation of Surface Area Volume Ratio and its effect on Body Temperature Essay Example

Investigation of Surface Area: Volume Ratio and its effect on Body Temperature Essay There are many factors that determine how quickly or slowly heat is lost. Some of the factors are as follows: amount of water, shape, temperature and surface area to volume ratio. The aim of this investigation is to examine how variations in surface and volume ratios in organisms lead to variations in heat loss.In theory a larger object should lose heat more slowly than a smaller object will as the larger object has a lower surface area to volume ratio than the small one so the heat will have further to travel. An example is the robin. In the winter the robin fluffs up into a spherical shape to give itself a smaller ratio so it retains heat more efficiently. In the summer it makes its body sleek and thin, giving itself a larger ratio so it loses heat more easily.In this investigation a 100-ml flask, a 500-ml, a 300-ml, a 200-ml and a 75-ml flask will be used. Their surface area to volume ratio can worked out by dividing surface area by volume:a) 100 ml flask 115/100 = 1.15:1b) 500 m l flask 330/500 = 0.66:1I predict that the 100 ml flask will lose heat 2 times quicker than the 500 ml flask as the 500 ml one has roughly half the surface area: volume ratio of the 100 ml one. For example if the 100-ml flask loses 1 degree centigrade per minute, the 500 ml one will lose half a degree centigrade per minute.Apparatus2xMats5x Beaker with thermometers1x Water HeaterIn the experiment a 500-ml beaker was filled with hot water, along with other volumes at 60 degrees. 60 degrees is used because it is quite high compared to room temperature. The apparatus was then set up and the temperature in degrees centigrade was taken every 1 minute, for 15 minutes, with the thermometers in the beakers. The results were then noted. The variable factors need to be considered in order to make the test a fair one. If the variables are not the same in both the beakers inaccurate results will be given. For starters the temperature of the air needs to be considered, within reason. The colour of the flask needs to be considered (a black flask will absorb heat), if there is a colour. The depth of the thermometer needs to be the same in all the beakers. The temperature and amount of the water in the beakers before the experiment starts needs to be the same in each experiment.It was decided that there should be three tries at the experiment. The first will comprise of the temperature of all the different sized beakers, 800ml, 500 ml, 300ml, 200ml and 75ml, beakers being taken every minute for 15 minutes overall. The next two will be repeats of this experiment to see if it is accurate, if any of the results are anomalous then they will easily be identifiable.Heat Loss per Minute CalculationsFormula = temp at 0 mins temp at 15 mins divided by 151) 100 ml: 72- 57/15 at 1 degree per minute2) 500 ml: 74-66.5/15 at 0.5 degrees per minuteAnalysisIn my prediction I stated that the 100-ml flask would lose heat 2 times more quickly than the 500-ml flask, and the rest are in the mid dle. The results to my heat loss per minute calculations back up this prediction as the heat loss per minute of the 100 ml flask was 1 degree centigrade whereas the heat loss per minute of the 500 ml beaker was 0.5 degrees centigradeConclusion:My results show that as Surface Area: Volume goes up the heat-loss rate goes down. This means the 75ml beaker lost more heat in the same amount of time than the 200ml beaker, and the 200ml beaker lost more heat than the 500ml beaker in the same time and so on. My results also show that as the water gets cooler it losses heat slower. These results support my plan and also show me other things I didnt mention in my plan. All my results support my conclusions and I dont have any results which dont fit in with the rest of the experiment. These results are as reliable as I could make due to restrictions I had, E.G. time limits, and the materials used, the results may have had a degree of inaccuracy. On the whole they are fairly reliable and I think they are sufficient to support a firm conclusion, although the start temperature for the 2nd set of results was a little higher than it should have been. This could have been due to the water cooling on the other set of result before its temperature was measured.There are many sources of possible error such as human error, which could have been made any time during the experiment take temperature etc Another factor effecting the results are the smaller the beaker the smaller the thickness of the sides of the beaker, i.e. the 500ml beaker side is much thicker than the 75ml beakers side and the 200ml beakers side size is roughly in the middle. This would effect the heat lost out the sides of the beakers, the 75ml beaker is going to lose heat quicker out the sides than the 200ml and 500ml beaker is. So to make this a fair experiment you would have to use beakers of the same thickness.Also due to time limits I was only able to collect three sets of results for each beaker when insulate d. I think I have enough to support my conclusion but I could have made it a lot more reliable, by doing it a few more times.I could have used two different sets of apparatus to see if one of them was wrong, due to contamination or error in the beakers.EvaluationsThe evidence I obtained was sufficient to corroborate my predictions. As the results were averaged and all variables were considered there were not really any anomalous results. However one error that was made was that the start off temperature for the 100-ml beakers was 72 degrees whereas the start off for the 500-ml beakers was 74 degrees. This error occurred because the timing of the 100 ml test tubes began too long after the beaker had been removed from the water heater. My results were very reliable as all variables were considered and the temperature readings were taken every minute exactly. I would make the following improvements on the experiment: 1) Set up two beakers of each volume at the same time. In my experime nts half of the beakers were done one day and on the next day the other half of the beakers were done. This meant that a direct comparison was not achieved as the room temperature on the first day differed from that of the second day.2) Use apparatus that measures water with more precision. The beakers that we used did not have very accurate markings on and so it was possible that we put too much or too little water in.3) Heat the beakers above 60 degrees as they loseheat quite rapidly and so the start off temperature will not be 60 degrees unless you heat the water to a higher temperature.If I was going to investigate further I would try different sized beakers. I would also investigate other factors that affect heat loss such as shape of object. I would also investigate how different air temperatures cause differentiation in heat loss.

Signal Units Involved during World War II Essay Example

Signal Units Involved during World War II Essay Example Signal Units Involved during World War II Essay Signal Units Involved during World War II Essay ATZH-LCB-B29 January 2012 SUBJECT: Chapter review of Getting the Message Through, Chapter VIII. 1. Chapter VIII is about signal units involved during World War II. Throughout each phase of the conflict, new problems and difficulties arose that could only be overcome through hard work, ingenuity and extreme bravery. The huge scope of the war on numerous continents tested the will and determination of the signal corps. 2. The first real need for signal support was hemisphere defense. This included protecting the Panama Canal from bombings, the British supply line by way of Greenland and the Japanese invasion of parts of Alaska after bombing of Pearl Harbor. They installed radar along the coasts and ran thousands of miles of wire through the frozen terrain of Alaska. On Puerto Rico, Signal Units provided aircraft warnings and communication support to help protect the Caribbean. 3. The first Signal units to actually face the enemy were in the Pacific. After the Pearl Harbor bombing, the Japanese began invading the Philippine Islands. They forced General McArthur to retreat to the Bataan Peninsula and finally Corregidor. Not all of the soldiers could get away. Lt. Gen. Wainwright was in command of the garrison and ventually moved his headquarters underground into the Malinta Tunnel. Col. Theodore Teague was commanding signal officer and once the Japanese invaded the tunnels, he ordered his signal soldiers to destroy all equipment. To keep communications going in the Philippines, the Signal Corps created the 978th Signal Service Company out of largely Filipino volunteers. They worked hand in hand with the guerilla fghters that resisted the Japanese invaders. These volunteers helped pave the way for the eventual Allied liberation of the Philippines. 4. The Signal Corps became involved in a grander scale of combat operations in North Africa. General Dwight D Eisenhower was the overall Allied Commander of invasions of Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. His chief Signal Officer was Brig. Gen. Jerry V MateJka. The first big test was operation TORCH, in which the Signal Corp was to provide communications for the amphibious assaults. Numerous problems arose from failure to keep the sea water from damaging equipment to the equipment itself being too heavy. They eventually set up permanent ACAN stations. Another issue was the different codes and call signs used by the British Army and Navvy, Royal Air Force and the Army Air Forces. Signal soldiers had to be adaptive and learn on their feet. 5. In helping to plan the Invasion of Normandy on the European front, the Signal Corps became part ot the Services ot Supply. Brig. Gen. illi m S Rumbougn became the theaters chief signal officer. He was faced with signal planning for the largest military operation of the war. This included establishing system of priorities for telephone traffic and allocating frequencies for the 90,000 transmitters needed for the operation. He also created the Joint Assault Signal Company OASCO) to provide signal support for the amphibious assaults at Omaha and Utah beaches. Also, wenty-eight signal men from the 101st Airborne Signal Company were the first signal men to land in France. They flew in with their SCR-449 radios on gliders. Multichannel radios were first incorporated in the Normandy invasion. 6. Once Hitler committed suicide and Germany surrendered, the Signal Corps put all their resources in support of the Pacific campaign to finish off the Japanese. The jungles of the numerous islands provided many issues with radio communications. To get the message through, miles and miles of wire were run through the trees without proper equipment. The SCR 300 radio was used to communicate with aircraft or arrangement of supply drops for the advancing Allied forces. The Signal Corps had also built their own signal fleet equipped with VHF radio relay sets. Their flagship, the Apache, was specifically devoted to public relations. After the ferocious battle of Iwo Jima, the Signal Corps began planning the communications for the proposed invasion of Japan called Operation OLYMPIC. The dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki brought the war to a quick conclusion. The Signal Corps performed their last duty by broadcasting the formal Japanese surrender proceedings aboard the USS Missouri to all the world.

Brand Identity and Content Quality

Brand Identity and Content Quality Brand Identity and Content Quality Brand Identity and Content Quality By Mark Nichol Every company is in the business of communication, and now that our society is well into the digital age, and businesses deliver their messages across multiple forms of media, it behooves them to do so with high professional standards. Two significant factors are brand identity and content quality, which are discussed in this post. The importance of brand identity is nothing new. Companies that market products have long been aware that having a consistent presentation strengthens consumer association with those products. Just as a companys line of tangible products, whether automobile or cleaning products, is consistent in terms of specifications such as appearance and labeling, so, too, should the presentation of various forms of media from a business be. Websites, YouTube channels, online and real-world slide shows, and all other forms of familiarizing current and prospective customers and clients with products and services, should present a consistent look in terms of logos, typefaces, color schemes, and so on. Many businesses, especially large, complex corporations, employ a style guide as a resource that enables employees to produce marketing materials and other information that supports brand identity. This guide is similar to (and generally incorporates) the traditional editorial style guide, which will be described below, but it includes more than that. An effective style guide includes a brand-identity section. Here, employees (and contractors who provide support services such as graphic design and copywriting) will find practical and technical information about logos and trademarks, fonts and other design specifications, and brand and product names. This resource includes everything from the appropriate size for logos (whether in English or metric units or in pixels) to the exact wording of names of products and services. This information detail specifications about various types of content: the company website, internal and external blogs, videos and slide shows, commercials (television, radio, and online), print advertising (not just in publications, but also on billboards and at mass-transit facilities and stops and on mass-transit vehicles), and so on. Also included should be specifications about conference and convention materials, including the look and feel of booths and their components (banners, panels, tabletop or countertop marketing collateral, and so on), and any other forms of presentation The level of detail should extend to how one invites recipients of an email message to reply. Sample guide text might read, â€Å"Always include the following text in an email message: ‘For more information, contact John Smith at john.smith@worldwidewickets.com, or call him at 123.456.7890.’ Always include one’s name as well as one’s email address in the sentence, write the email address in all lowercase letters, and set the parts of the phone number off with periods, not parentheses and hyphens.† The style guide will also include a discussion of voice and tone. Here, the company dictates how employees should express themselves- what degree of formality or informality is appropriate when communicating in any media. Does the company wish to convey a traditional gravitas, or a hip, conversational sensibility? Should written (or spoken) advertising content be straightforward, or is a lighter approach, perhaps one that allows for sarcasm or self-deprecation, appropriate? The style guide should make it clear how employees should communicate to customers or clients. Terminology is also an important part of the company’s style guide. Besides trademarks, brand names, and taglines, what is the vocabulary of the business? What is the jargon? Words and phrases (and acronyms and initialisms) likely to be employed in marketing efforts should be listed and defined. Those in the company who offer or exchange information, whether on the phone or in email messages, or whether in print advertising or on the home page of the company’s website, should know how they are expected to do so to most effectively reach their audience. Finally, the section should contain an editorial style guide that provides guidance on grammar, usage, and style. The branding and terminology sections will inform employees and contractors about capitalization of branding terms and industry-specific vocabulary, but the style guide will serve to remind people about whether text should include serial commas, inform them of the few exceptions when prefixes are hyphenated, admonish them to avoid scare quotes and clichà ©s, and so on. In addition, the style guide should emphasize the importance of meticulous attention to quality of content. In my experience, websites and other media produced by large corporations often are often superior in this respect to books and journalistic content in general, which is as it should be: In commerce, as in publishing, high content standards are integral in maintaining an authoritative reputation. You don’t have to be a corporate marketing director or communications manager to appreciate the importance of compiling and employing a style guide that details brand identity and champions content quality. People who operate a home business, and even bloggers and vloggers (video bloggers) can at a scaled-down level benefit from having such a resource at hand to encourage them to maintain consistency in the presentation of materials they offer to consumers and followers. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Style category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:How to Format a US Business LetterDeck the Halls20 Criminal Terms You Should Know

Reasearch Paper Research Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Reasearch - Research Paper Example Diffusion can lead to changes in cultural practices, which will eventually influence spatial distribution. Cultural is the accepted way of life within a particular group of people. It includes food, clothing, practices and beliefs. Currently, the world is full of many different cultures. However, the dominant cultures trace their origins in cultural hearths. Seven locations have been identified as the point of origin for the dominant cultures in the world (Blij et al, 2011). These locations include the Nile River Valley, Indus River valley, Wei-Huang Valley, Ganges River Valley, Andean, Mesopotamia, and West Africa. It is the cradle of Chinese civilization. The valley is where the earliest Chinese irrigation works started. The capital of Chinese major dynasties like Qin, Zhou, Tang and Han were found along this valley. Trade in the valley began in the form of barter trade, which eventually developed as innovation gained ground. It is believed that the Wei River is the ancient Jiang River, which is associated with the early development of agriculture (Pitzl, 2004). The Nile is a critical component of both ancient and modern Egypt. The Nile River is the longest river in the world; it flows from the mountains to the Mediterranean. The river has been responsible for supporting many lives for thousands of years. It has shaped many cultures in the region. The earliest forms of civilization in Egypt are associated with the Nile. The river made agriculture possible, which is the reason ancient Egypt was able to make strides in civilization. The Nile River valley is where the Egyptian culture flourished. It is responsible for the development of Kingdoms of West Africa. Agricultural breakthroughs were made by these kingdoms. The development in this area was influenced by the breakthroughs experienced by the people Southeast Asia and the Nile valley. It had agricultural communities its northern part by

Arab World Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Arab World - Essay Example an, Palestine and Syria, Maghreb that is composed of part of Egypt, Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, and Libya, and the Arabian Peninsula that is composed of Oman, Yemen, Bahrain, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, and Kuwait (Yafi, 2012, pg. 18). These regions have differences in terms of economy, culture, political systems, timing, people, and the history. This paper defines the differences in the Arab World regions in terms of political systems, economy, and education after the Arab Spring. The political system is one of the major differences in these regions. The political boundaries of the Arab Peninsula is comprised of Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, and the United Arab Emirates. The vast region of the Arab Peninsula is covered by the Saudi Arabia. The majority of this population also comes from Saudi Arabia. The six countries from the Arab Peninsula have formed the Gulf Cooperation Council that oversees the running and maintenance of a political unity in these countries (Yafi, 2012, pg. 23). The six countries are Qatar, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Oman, and the United Arab Emirates. Most of these countries are monarchies except Bahrain, and Yemen. The Maghreb is made up of various modern territories. These include Algeria, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia, and Mauritania. The formation of the Maghreb is linked to the need to promote co-operation both economically and politically the region through Muammar Gadhafi. The countries are republics except Morocco w hich is a monarchy. The Mashriq region is composed of countries that are on the Eastern side of Egypt. It composes countries such as Egypt, Palestine, Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan. Jordan is the only country that remains as a monarchy while the other countries are republics (Yafi, 2012, pg. 13). In terms of education, the regions have experienced issues that relate to the education of women. The literacy levels of the youths is higher in these countries compared to the adult literacy levels. The Arab Peninsula

Traditional malaysian music

Traditional malaysian music INTRODUCTION: A BRIEF HISTORY OF TRADITIONAL MALAYSIAN MUSIC The history of Malaysian music needs to be viewed from the perspective of the old Malay world which covered Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines and Cambodia, along with parts of Thailand. Within this cultural entity, one can find numerous similarities of musical instruments and musical structures which are the result of a common cultural heritage moulded by musical elements from the West Asia, India and China In addition to the Indian and Islamic factors, Malaysian art forms have also been influenced by the countrys neighbours, particularly Indonesia and Thailand. Indonesia immigrants, especially Javanese and Bugis, along with Minangkabau, Achinese and other Sumaterans who are traditionally concentrated in the south-western part of the Malay Peninsula (ex: Johore, Malacca, Negeri Sembilan and Selangor) brought with them several of the performing arts which are now considered Malaysian (Ghouse Nasuruddin 1992). Among them are the Javanese wayang purwa, a form of shadow play which is different from those of Kelantan and Kedah; the ketoprak, a dance drama; kuda kepang, another traditional dance; and the angklung, a musical ensemble consisting of bamboo chime instruments. In addition, the Bugis brought to Terengganu the joget gamelan from the Riau Archipelago, and also the rodat from Acheh in Sumatera via Sambas in Borneo. The Malaysian performing arts in the northern part of the Peninsula have been greatly affected by Thais cultural influences. (Ghouse Nasuruddin 1992) In the wake of the decline of Majapahit during the course of the 14th century, the Thais started their move southwards and tried to assert their claim to over lordship of all the Malay Peninsula and forcing Malay Rulers to send ‘tribute to Ayuthia, and then later to Bangkok. Nevertheless, the rise of Malacca checked this southward expansion, and even after the fall of Malacca to the Portuguese in 1511, Thai influence was successfully confined to the three northern Peninsular Malay states of Kelantan, Kedah and Terengganu. The British helped in containing Thai influence to theses states as their own power and influence grew in the Peninsula. Finally in 1909 sovereignty over these four northern states (which now included Perlis) was formally handed over to the British by the Treaty of Bangkok. Nevertheless, for over 500 years these for northern states of the Peninsula Malaysia had been periodically subjected to Thai political and cultural influences. It is, therefore, not surprising to find elements of the Thai performing arts such as the Wayang Kulit Siam of Kelantan, the Wayang KulitGedek of Kedah and Perlis, and the menora dance drama within these states. ). (Terry E, Miller, Sean W 2008) The more recent major influence on the performing arts of Malaysia, was effected by the Portuguese are credited with the introduction of the violin and the guitar, while British cultural influence in Malaysia has been much more generalized. (Ghouse Nasuruddin 1992). In addition to popularizing western music, dance, and theatre, the Europeans have also directly influenced the development of semi-modern syncretic musical forms such as the asli, keroncong, ghazal and bangsawan, which combine both western and traditional musical elements. As a consequence of these influences, traditional Malaysian music exhibits multi-faceted musical styles which combine regional as well western and West Asian elements. For example, the musical styles and instruments of northern Peninsula Malaysia resemble those of the Thais, while those in the southern part of the Peninsula have incorporated Indonesian musical elements. Furthermore, all over Malaysia western musical influences are glaringly evident. Shadow puppet theatre The shadow puppet play (wayang kulit) is an ancient form of traditional theatre in Malaysia. The stories are told by a puppet master (dalang) who manipulates the puppets (called wayang) which are seen in shadows projected on a screen. (Ghouse Nasuruddin 1992). In this very old form of theatre a small ensemble plays the music to accompany the movement of puppets and events in the stories. In Malaysia there are four types of shadow puppet play, each with a specific name and distinctive style. These are Wayang Kulit Jawa (Javanese shadow puppet play), the Wayang Kulit Gedek (mixture of Thai and Malay folk styles of shadow puppet play), the Wayang Kulit Melayu (Malay court form of shadow puppet play) and Wayang Kulit Kelantan (Kelantanese shadow puppet play) The presence of foreign influences in puppets, repertoire or music does not in itself prove that the technique originates from the same source as these influences. Wayang Kulit Jawa The Wayang Kulit Jawa, Javanese influenced and originated in Indonesia and is performed today by the descendants of Javanese immigrants who settled in the southern state of Johor many decades ago. (Ghouse Nasuruddin 1992). In Malaysia, this form of shadow play still maintains the basic features of the Wayang Kulit Purwa of Indonesia, including the use of the stories, characters from the Mahabharata epic and the musical accompaniment of the Javanese Gamelan. The gamelan in this shadow play includes singers as well as xylophones, metallophones, and knobbed gongs just as in Indonesia. Malaysia maintains the basic feature of Wayang Kulit Purwa which consist the characteristic of Mahabharata epics and gamelan ensemble accompaniment. Wayang Kulit Jawa Wayang Kulit Gedek This Wayang Kulit Gedek, performed in the northern peninsular states of Perlis, Kedah and Kelantan, is called Nang Talung in Thailand. (Ghouse Nasuruddin 1992). This type of shadow puppet play originated in Southern Thailand and features small-sized, flat leather puppets. In Malaysia Wayang Kulit Gedek is performed by Thai and Malay peoples using a mixture of Thai and Malay language or just the southern Thai dialect, depending upon the audience. The stories feature local tales and episodes from the Ramayana epic (called the Ramakien in Thailand). The style of performance, music and puppet design show a distinct mixture of southern Thai and Malay traits including the small orchestra of drums, knobbed gongs, cymbals and bowed stringed instruments. In former times the wind instrument called pi or pi Jawa (a quadruple reed shawm) was included in this ensemble, and it is still often featured in the Wayang Kulit Gedek orchestra in Malaysia. However, today in southern Thailand the bow lutes called saw oo and saw duang (originating from the huqin family of Chinese bowed flutes) are preferred in place of the pi. The drums in this ensemble include klong khat, thon and klong khaek, similar to the Malay geduk, gedumbak and gendang,(Figure 1-3), respectively, a small pair of finger cymbals and the gong-chime called mong (2 knobbed gongs placed horizontally in a wooden box) are also used. WAYANG KULIT GEDEK Wayang Kulit Melayu Wayang Kulit Melayu, also named as Wayang Kulit Jawa, is strongly influenced by the Wayang Kulit Purwa of Indonesia. In the 19th and 20th centuries, this type of shadow play developed under the patronage of the sultan and existed as entertainment mainly for the aristocrats connected to the palaces of Kelantan and Kedah. In earlier times it was also performed in the Malay Sultanate of Patani. Today this Sultanate is no longer exists, but the location of the former kingdom is still located at southern Thailand. The stories of the Wayang Kulit Melayu focus on episodes of the Mahabharata epic, and the form and design of the puppets are nearly identical to the style of puppets from Java and Indonesia. During World War II this type of shadow puppet theatre was not performed; after the war years it was revived as entertainment for villagers without the patronage of the sultans. By the 1980s experienced puppet masters were difficult to find ant the Wayang Kulit Melayu. Today in Malaysia, this shadow play is rarely performed. The orchestra consists of several bronze gongs including a pair of large, hanging gongs called tetawak(Plate 1), a single knobbed horizontal gong called the mong, and a set of six or more small horizontal gongs called the canang(Plate 2). In addition, a pair of kesi cymbals (Plate 3), a pair of elongated barrel, double-headed drums called gendang (Plate 6) and one 2-stringed rebab is used. The rebab exhibits a mixture of Malay and Javanese features using only two strings in Javanese form, but with the body construction of the Malay rebab. A specific musical repertory existed for this type of shadow play, but today only a few pieces are still known. Wayang Kulit Melayu WAYANG KULIT KELANTAN The Wayang Kulit Kelantan is a folk theatre and is to be referred as Wayang Kulit Siam. This shadow puppets originally from and play around states in Kelantan, Kedah, Terengganu and formerly in Perak and Pahang. This is the most famous traditional puppet theatre among all in Malaysia. The former time, this performance is for ritual purpose, but today it been revived and to be performed as an entertainment. The Ramayana epic is the main focus for the trunk and stories for Kelantanese shadow play. The shadow play is one of the oldest theatrical art-forms in Asia and is found as far north as China and as far west as India and Turkey. Each country has its own form and style of shadow play, and there are variations within each of these forms. The home of the shadow play still has not been identified with certainty, as an evident from the controversies regarding its origin. According to Otto Spies, Sabri East Siyavusgil and William Ridgeway, it originated in India. Berthold Laufer, citing China as its home, tells of a legend about the later Han Emperor Kuang Wu Ti (25-57 A.D.) who instructed the court shaman to cast shadows on a screen in an effort to recall the spirit of his departed wife. Hazeu, on the other hand, credits Java as its place of origin because of the Javanese terminology in the Wayang Kulit Purwa. There are scholars who support the India origin of the shadow theatre because of the repertoire of the South-East Asian shadow plays which mainly portray episodes from the two Hindu epics, the Ramayana and Mahabharata. But as noted by Alessio Bombaci, the shadow play could have emerged on its own in all these places – India, China and West Asia, and from these separate areas spread to other countries throug h economic, political and cultural interaction. However whatever its genesis, the shadow play doubt began as an animistic ritual. Even since its inception, the shadow play has been influenced by the religious beliefs prevalent in those countries where it has become established, to the extent that each variety reflects in microsm the religious history of its land of domicile. This is particularly true of the Malaysian shadow play whose rituals combine elements of animism, Hinduism and Islam. As we have already seen, through the ages Malaysia has been influenced by strong Indian, Chinese, Thai and Javanese cultural influences, with the result that her shadow plays bear striking resemblances to the Thai nang talung, the Khmer nang trolung, and the Javanese Wayang Kulit Purwa. The four types of Malaysia shadow play adapted from Javanese Wayang Kulit purwa, Wayang Kulit Melayu and Wayang Kulit Melayu both display similarities in structure, technique and performance with their Javanese counterpart. What differentiate is the one from the other of the configuration of the puppets and the nature of their musical ensembles. According to Patricia A, Sooi Beng T, the puppets of the Wayang KulitMelayu, which are highly stylized, have two moveable arms, while those of the less stylized Wayang Kulit Melayu have only one moveable arm. While a gamelan ensemble accompanies the Wayang KulitMelayu, the Wayang Kulit Melayu uses an indigenous musical ensemble. The repertoire of both the shadow plays consist of episodes from the Javanese and Malay versions of the Ramayana and Mahabharata, tales from the Panji cycles, the Islamic tales of Amir Hamzah, and local lore and legend. (Endon S 1999) Wayang Kulit Kelantanuses the technique of the Javanese Wayang Kulit Jawa to perform the Thai version of the Ramayana, as well as containing elements of local lore and legend. It differs from the Wayang Kulit Gedek, in the configuration of its puppets and in the nature of the accompanying musical ensemble. (Ghouse Nasuruddin 1992) The puppets of Wayang Kulit Kelantan are only seen in profile, puppets of Wayang Kulit Gedek uses combination of full-faced and profiled. Furthermore, the Wayang Kulit Kelantan musical ensemble is larger than that of Wayang Kulit Gedek. Wayang Kulit Kelantan Shadow Play Music There are seventeen repertoires in Kelantan shadow theatre and to be divided into four categories Ritualistic, emotional, designate individual character, and variety of occasions and designate action. Two examples are show below: Bertabuh and Tuk Maha Siku Mak Yong pieces are included in some of the repertoire in shadow play, for instance Lagu Yong Bertabuh, Sang Gendang, Pakyung Muda, and Lagu Barat. Younger troupe insert several modern pieces such as Lagu Joget Kelantan and Lagu Berlari Yong Muda, This is innovation of shadow play but was not appreciate by the older troupes to adulterate the music of shadow play; they only stick to their principle by performing traditionally pieces. For my opinion, innovation of shadow play is a significant issue for the sake of entertainment effect and also self satisfaction to make an improvement of music element aspect. Lagu Perang (war music) is the most common piece to be play Kelantan shadow theatre. It is show in the opening continuation as Lagu Bertabuh, combat in between two Dewa Panah (mystical warriors); the whole repertoire is all about fighting and battle in the play. A few pieces were often to be played in the shadow play are Lagu Hulubalang which indicates all warriors; it accompanies Sri Rama when he is ready for war, Hanuman, lesser princes, and all warriors. On my opinion, within the play proper of the shadow play performance, dramatic action is essential to be played in the music piece, but the structural format is remain a definite ritualistic opening of the actual play performance. Before the proper performance start, Dalang Tua (elder Dalang) will manipulate the puppets, sing and speaks every characters part and conduct the orchestra. The buka ponggang( opening ceremony) emerged in Mak Yong repertoire to portrayed his acts of connecting the real and nether worlds. Lagu Bertabuh is a start of informing the villagers that the play is to begin; in another way is also a conclusion of the ritualistic ceremony. Shadow play ensembles or orchestras and instruments The musical ensembles of the shadow play are percussion-dominated with either a solitary aerophone (wind) or a chordophone (string) instrument. An example for Wayang Kulit Kelantan ensemble has the following instruments: Idiophonic (Brass) Orotund material is to make to Idiophones instruments. Tetawak, kesi and canang occurs as a pairs in idiophone structure. The pair of tetawak (Plate 1) are knobbed gongs which hung between wooden racks, and padded beater is to hit the knob. The larger tetawak played lower pitch which calledâ€Å"tawak ibu† (mother tawak), tawak anak (child tawak) played the high pitch. Major third or perfect fifth is the tuning in between one set to another. The standardization of the tuning of tetawak so as canang is not the main important issue in music. Canang(Plate 2) is made of iron or metal, and it consists of two knobbed gongs, which hung horizontally on the wooden rack. The two gongs are hit by a pair of peddar beater, both gongs (anak canang and ibu canang ) played in different pitches( high and low pitch). Both gongs tuning interval may range from majors second to sixth. Kesi Cymbals (Plate 3) have a cup-like protruding with a small hole to enable to two cymbals to be connected. It is made of booze or iron. Resonant, ringing sound occurs when striking by player on the pair of cymbals. Unison are played in two pieces of timbres with canang, canang anak (high pitch) played ringing timbre whilst canang ibu (low pitch) played damped timbre. Kesi is similar to the western cymbal. Aerophonic (Wind) The serunai(Plate 4) is a double reed instrument which falls into the shawm category, varying in length from 12 to 18 inches and constructed from variation of woods such as batang lada, lebam and nangka. It is divided into three sections, namely kepala (head), batang (stem) and pipit (mouth-piece) .Daun lunta, a type of fern leaf, is used for the reed. Altogether there are eight sound holes on the serunai, seven on top and one below. It is adorned with intricate carvings and painted with various shades of colour. Membranophone (Percussion) Three types of drum constitute the membranophone category. The first is a pair of mother and son cylindrical-shaped geduk (Plate 7), with the mother being the larger of the two. Its dimension varies from 12 to 20 inches in length, with a front circumference between 30 to 37 inches and a back circumference of between 27 to 33 inches. The body of the geduk is mostly made from kayu nangka, but kayu sena or kayu merbau is sometimes used. Both sides are covered with cow or buffalo hide. The two legs located at one end of the geduk serve to tilt it towards the drummer to facilitate his playing, which is done with a pair of drum sticks. The pair of gendang (Plate 6), mother and son, are both barrel-shaped, with the mother being the larger of the two. The mother drum measures from 20 to 22 inches in length, and has a front circumference which varies between 24 to 33 inches and a back circumference of between 24 to 29 inches. The length of the gendang anak (son drum) varies from 19 to 22 inches with a front circumference of between 22 to 25 inches and a back circumference of between 19 to 22 inches. More often than not, the body of the gendang is made from kayu nangka rather than from kayu merbau. Both the front and back faces of the drum are covered with animal skins, cow hide for the mother drum and goatskin for the son drum. Rattan strands are coiled around one end of the body as an anchor to stretch the skin and vary the tension of its surface. The drums are played with both hands, one for striking each face. Texture and Form The texture of shadow theatre can be categories into melodic line played by serunai, variety of drum rhythmic pattern and bronze instruments play the element of gong. The form and structure in each piece of shadow play is determined and defined by colotomic structure or gong unit in the music. (Ghouse Nasuruddin 1992) .The gong unit is a time unit marked at its end by lowest pitches gong is the tetawak ibu, which is stuck at the last beat of gong unit. Gong unit is to be served as a basis element to be play in shadow plays and Mak Yong, multiples of two beats are based on the total number of colotomic structure. (Patricia A, Sooi Beng T 2004). Hence, in the gong unit, there are no 2- beat but continuously with 4-, 8-, 16-, 32-, 64- and so on. The gong unit is to be identifying by particular gong tone to played specific beat, as a result binary form is occurs in gong unit as the subdivision of internal gong to be played. Division of half occurs in first gong unit, for example gong tones occurs in beat 8 and 16 in a 16- beats gong unit. Another significant trait in 2-beat stress in the gong unit, firstly it( pulse weakly on the first beat and continue with a strong stress on the second beat. Patricia A, Sooi Beng T 2004) Repetition of the weak and strong stress in the repertoire is to gain the appropriate number of beat at variety gong unit. Canang gong chime play the 2-beat stress gong unit in shadow play, sometime ding-dong vocalized syllabus will be use as ding to be the first weak beat by canang anak (high pitch); whereas dong is to be played on the second strong beat by canang ibu ( low pitch). At the meantime, kesi cymbals are played to mark a resounding timbre in the weak beat and damped timbre in the strong beat. In the piece of Pak Dogol, the gedumbak and gendang anak produce specific 4-beat rhythmic patterns that combine to give a complete resultant rhythmic pattern for piece. Because the piece Pak Dogol based on 8-beat unit gong unit, the 4-beat resultant drum pattern is played twice in the time one complete gong unit. (Example 1) Scale Pentatonic, hexatonic and heptatonic are the main three scales in shadow play pieces. These three scales type are established in the repertory, hexatonic and heptatonic scales accent on five specific pitches which may contemplate a pentatonic core within the larger scale system. Semitone or whole tone are contains at all level of intervals. For example, third interval include in some scales. Sampling to be shown below: (Patricia A, Sooi Beng T 2004) DALANG Dalang can be found at padi harvest, the wayang season thus beginning of the rainy season. A popular dalang may expect to receive invitation to perform which will keep him occupied throughout the season, extending from about March to October. Dalang incomes (Amin.S 1972) entirely from the wayang and those that attempt to do so have a meager existence during the rainy season when they are forced to live on what has been saved during the wayang season which is seldom much. The dalang have a secondary occupation, and where the dalang does not enjoy much success, the wayang will be his secondary occupation. The performance definitely entertainment for humans not spirits. These rituals are performed for various purposes, propitiation of spirits, releasing a person from a vow, and initiating a pupil, but their form is basically the same and consists of a synthesis of Javanesse wayang ritual and local spirit medium ship. The importance of these rituals is that performed to ward off the threat of cholera by placating the local spirits. The dalang learn their art from a teacher, the few exceptions to this merely imitating the performances of others. The teacher is rarely the dalangs father and the art is not hereditary. (Amin.S 1972). Comparison of the repertoire, performance and ritual of a dalang with those of his teacher reveals, almost without exception, considerable differences. There are several reasons for this: It is rare that a dalang learns everything from one source and it is not unsual to have had more than one teacher, though this may not be admitted. A dalang may further learn pieces of repertoire from persons who are not even dalang and information are also gleaned by observing the performances of other dalang. It is clear, therefore, that every dalangs knowledge is to a greater or lesser extent a pot pourri gathered from several sources. (Amin.S 1972) Several reasons for becoming a dalang but the primary motive is nearly always that he experiences intense pleasure from observing the wayang and that he has the urge and desire to perform himself. Dance Theatre – Mak Yong Human characters but not puppet play performed the traditional theatres known as Mak Yong. Mak Yong is forms by three integral- dance, dialogue and music with the legend story from local place. While there are common denominators in dramatic, musical, and dance structure, there are, however, marked difference among them in dance and music styles. The Mak Yong has been noted as an ancient Malay form of theatre as witnessed in legends, myths and by its close ties to the traditional healing ceremony called the main puteri. (Ghouse Nasuruddin 1992) Besides that, Common feature are shared in these various traditional theatres. The performances are usually to anticipated and down mainly from stories and legend known to the community. Generally, plots are episode and long enough to allow audience members to drift in and out during the performance. Mak Yong is a traditional form of dance originated in Southern Thailand, it appears in Kelantan since last two hundred years, and is one of the popular traditional dances in Terengganu and spread to Kedah. In the early 20th century, Mak Yong was given royal patronage by the court of Kelantan which established a â€Å"theatrical village† known as the â€Å"Kampung Temenggung† in the town of Kota Bahru. (Ghouse Nasuruddin 1992) This form of theatre was supported and patronized by His Highness Temengung Ghaffar from the Kelantan palace at that time. But the patronage did not last long until the death of Sultan Mohamad IV at 1920, although Mak Yong was originally about rural regions as a folk tradition, through its years of royal patronage the music, dance, costumes and other theatrical aspects were refined because of the constant opportunities for practice and performance in Kampung Temengung. In between the changes; Mak Yong became popular as an entertainment in the public and lost its artistic quality which is normally connected with a court oriented performance. When time goes by, the court dance eventually turn to a normal performance to the public and created new audience, portraying the folk life. Mak Yong performs at many occasions, but emphasize specifically on padi harvest, that is a thanksgiving ceremony for bounteous crop. Wedding, kings birthday and national holiday were the occasions Mak Yong to be performed. According to Patricia A, Sooi Beng T, Mak Yong traditional performances have a connection with ritual and the world of spirits. Mak Yong served as healing rituals. Main Puteri is the healing person and the healing section involves soporific dance and spirit possession. In some traditional cities, the healing rituals are still pursuing but they are mainly frowned nowadays. It reflects the inner, the significant and mysterious of stories. High ritual performance sometimes occurs in Mak Yong. A good example: sembah guru (paying homage to ones teacher) ceremony and performance in which a student, who is ready to go on stage as a principal, performs certain rites within connection of a performance itself. The main puteri healing ceremony for the intention of healing a sick people will sometime found in the main structure element of Mak Yong. Shaman (bomoh) take the lead to communicate with the spirit world to discover the root of an illness and the main actress (the Pak Yong character), a lthough main puteri ceremonial elements become dominant in the performance, the music used is still that of the Mak Yong. Troupe of women performed the main role whilst men played the clown roles. This form of dance was established as a court form (C.1875) that became well known to villages. The women sing, dance and perform improvise dialogue especially in the clown and contemporary section. The action takes place in the round, with all nonnative cast members sitting casually around the outside of the circle. (Anonymous n.d) Performers are considered to be off-stage or members of the chorus when not in the central acting space. Performers work towards the creation and identification character types, stylized motion, poetic language and rhythmic language. Along with dialogue and notated passage, music, song and dance is also incorporated into traditional performance. Serious or tragic events are intermingling with comedy. The original story in the Mak Yong dramatic repertory is called the Dewa Muda, which is a Malay folk tale. The stories Dewa Muda come along with about twelve other tales consist the dramatic repertory. (Patricia A, Sooi Beng T 2004) Several of these stories are also performed in other local theater forms such as the wayang kulit, menorah and the bangsawan. The stories focus on folk heroes, heroines, their fantastic adventures, and are told using dialogue, singing and dance by the characters along with the accompaniment of vocal and instrumental music. Some of the especially important roles are the Pakyung and Pakyung Muda (the king and prince), the queen or Makyung and the princess or Puteri Makyung, the old and young clown-servants known respectively, as the Peran Tua and Peran Muda, and the astrologer or expert of some kind called Tok Wak. In the 20th century, and still today, all principal roles are taken by women who dress according to the role played. However, before the 1020s m en played the roles of the Pakyung and Pakyung Muda and not women. Performance practice The Makyung performance begins with an opening ceremony called the Buka Panggung (opening of the stage) with prayers, offerings of food and the consecration of the musical instruments and other items. (Patricia A, Sooi Beng T 2004). Immediately following the official opening is the performance of several pieces before the story itself actually begins. These pieces each have a special function and serve to introduce the characters or carry out some other special purpose. For example, the actors and actresses come onto the stage with the accompaniment of the piece called Pakyung Turun (The king descends), an instrumental piece. This piece is followed by a ritual song and dance called the Menghadap Rebab (paying homage to the rebab), which salutes the musical instrument called the rebab. The opening section of the performance continues with the pieces entitled Sedayung Mak yong and Sedayung Pak yong. These two pieces are performed to introduce the Mak Yong and Pak Yong characters. Another piece entitled Ela is performed by the Pak Yong character to introduce the character he will play in the story for the evening. All of these pieces (except the Pak Yong Turun) also involved specific dances, which are performed by the main singer along with the members of the chorus (the jong dondang). This group of sung and danced pieces comprises a fixed opening, which is performed each time a Mak Yong performance takes place. A given story takes several nights to complete and, before its continuation from night to night, the fixed opening of sung and d

State and Local Government Essay

What is Federalism? The United States has one of the most complicated forms of government in the world. With many levels and subdivisions, this form of government is called federalism. Within the United States, federalism is marked by a continuous change in the system of connections between the national, state, and local governments. At times, the different levels of government act independently and at other times, the levels became so entangled that it becomes impossible to tell apart the responsibilities of one from the other. Federalism is just one of the three main systems of power used by the United States. There are two ways, other than pure federalism, to organize power among national and regional governments. Pure federalism is also known as a federal system. In a federal system, the central and regional governments are divided in power and responsibilities, and the governments do not depend on each other for their power. Voters elect candidates into both the regional and central levels within a federal system allowing the United States to have a representative government, meaning that people elect representatives to legislate on their behalf. Another system of government is the unitary system. In a unitary system, power is concentrated in the central government. The central government then grants special powers to the regional governments. Voters elect people into the central government and then the central government assigns people to the regional governments. France’s government is an example of a unitary system. The third system of government is the confederal system or confederacy. In a confederacy, power is concentrated more in the regional governments than the central government. Voters elect people into the independent regional governments and then these independent regional governments grant legal authority to the central government. An example of a confederal system would be the Confederate States of America. The federal system describes the system of power that the United States has. This means that the regional governments (states and localities) and the central (national) government are independent equals. Because of this, the  federal system allows for these regional governments to experiment with policy. These experimental acts by the regional governments give them the label of laboratories of democracy. However, for some years now, federalism has been linked with the concept of devolution. Devolution is the process of powers and responsibilities being taken from the national government and given to the state governments, which clearly goes against the â€Å"independent equals† idea in federalism because states are gaining more power. This could be a result of the states abusing their power of experimenting with policy. Although states might abuse their power of experimenting, the actual practice of experimenting is considered an advantage. Experimenting is one of the many advantages of federalism. Federalism allows for flexibility among state laws and institutions as well as reduces complications because the states are able to accommodate citizens’ interests, which is shown by how much easier trade is now. Another advantage of federalism is that it enables the achievement of national goals, which is shown when the goal of creating an interstate highway system was achieved in the 1950s. Although federalism is full of advantages, it comes with a price. Unfortunately, federalism increases complexity and confusion, which could be a great inconvenience for people. Federalism can cause confusion between state and federal governments because of the vagueness of the exact division of powers among them. Federalism promotes the duplication of efforts and the reduction of accountability. It also makes it difficult to coordinate, which is shown when police or fire departments in different cities or states can’t communicate with each other. This was clearly shown during the Three Mile Island accident that almost caused a huge catastrophe. Another drawback would be that federalism creates inequality in services and policies. Federalism is not a perfect ideal, but rather it plays host to a balance of both advantageous and disadvantageous outcomes. The Federal Emergency Management Agency, also known as FEMA, is a classic example of how federalism shapes policy. In trying to aid in the relief for hurricane Katrina, FEMA was unsuccessful in their efforts. They were not  able to communicate with state and local governments and coordinate procedures in providing relief. However, during hurricane Sandy, FEMA provided great help and relief for people because they were able to efficiently communicate and coordinate proper procedures. This shows how coordination can go from bad to good because of the resiliency of FEMA in federalism. Federalism in the United States has a Constitutional base. The Constitution grants powers to the different levels of government. Enumerated powers are grants of authority that are explicitly given to the federal government, meaning that they are written in the Constitution. One of the most important pieces in the Constitution is the national supremacy clause, which states that federal law takes precedence over all other laws. This allows the process of the federal government overriding areas regulated by state law, called preemption. Exclusive powers are also another set of powers stated in the Constitution. These are powers given solely to the federal government. The powers of creating and upholding an army and navy, declaring war, and regulating commerce are all exclusive powers. Education is run by the states because running education is not stated as an exclusive power. Another set of powers stated in the Constitution are concurrent powers. Concurrent powers are powers that are shared by both the federal and state governments. The right to tax, borrow, and spend are all powers that can be exercised by the federal and state governments. Implied powers are another set of powers given to the federal government through the Constitution. These powers are broad, but undefined, powers that were essentially created on the idea that not all powers could possibly be listed to meet the needs of the developing nation. These include the general welfare clause, the necessary and proper clause, and the interstate commerce clause. The general welfare clause gives Congress the authority to provide for the â€Å"general welfare†. The necessary and proper clause gives Congress the right to pass any law that they think is â€Å"necessary and proper† to help in carrying out the responsibilities of the federal government as they are defined in the Constitution. The interstate commerce clause gives Congress the right to regulate interstate commerce. These clauses have been broadly interpreted which, in result, has been giving Congress more and more implied  powers. While the Constitution has been shifting more power into the hands of Congress, there isn’t much stated for the state governments. It does, however, state the full faith and credit clause. This clause requires that states recognize each other’s public records and acts, meaning that contract, wills, and marriages that are valid in one state are all valid in all other states. In essence, this clause is the financial backbone of state and local government. Another clause that was stated in the Constitution for state purposes is the privileges and immunities clause. Under this clause, states are prohibited from discriminating against the citizens of other states. The Bill of Rights was also something put into the Constitution to promote individual and state rights by limiting the power of the federal government. The Tenth Amendment addresses the power of the states. It guarantees a broad and undefined set of powers be reserved for only the states and people. The Fourteenth Amendment also deals with specifying the powers of states. This amendment makes it so that the states cannot deprive individuals of the rights and privileges of citizenship and it also requires states to provide due process and equal protection guarantees. The Constitutional basis for federalism in the United States is a big part of its government. Federalism is not a cut and dry system, however. There are many different types of federalism. One of these types is dual-federalism. It is the idea that federal and state governments have powers and responsibilities that are separate and different. Dual-federalism is the midpoint between nation-centered federalism and state-centered federalism; nation-centered federalism being the belief that the nation is the basis of the federal system and that the national government should take superiority over the states, and state-centered federalism is the exact opposite. Advocates of states’ rights agree with the compact theory and believe in a government for the states. Whoever advocates states’ rights believes that states should be able to make their own decisions without any interference from the federal government. The compact theory is the idea that the Constitution represents an agreement among the sovereign states to form a common government. It  took the practice of nullification to an extreme back during the 1820s and 1830s. Eventually, national policies kept upsetting the southern states in the U.S. and that led to secession arguments. The concept that it is impossible for state and federal governments to have different and separate jurisdictions and that both those federal and state governments must work together is called cooperative federalism. Cooperative Federalism comes in different forms as well. The first form of cooperative federalism is â€Å"Layer Cake Federalism†. This form of federalism consists of delineated lines that separate federal, state, and local governments. â€Å"Layer Cake Federalism† is rarely used. The second form of cooperative federalism is â€Å"Marble Cake Federalism†. In â€Å"Marble Cake Federalism†, federal, state, and local governments are so thoroughly mixed with each other that they are impossible to separate from each other. This form of federalism is more common in the United States. The third form of cooperative federalism is â€Å"Picket Fence Federalism† or centralized federalism. Centralized federalism is the concept that the federal government should take the leading role in setting national policy, with state and local governments helping to implement the policies. Centralized federalism has shifted power from the states to federal government. The power shift can be seen through grants given to the state governments by the federal government The federal government supplies many different forms of grants-in-aid. The first form is a categorical grant, which is money given for specific programs, leaving the state and local governments with little discretion on how to spend it. The second form of a grant-in-aid is a general revenue sharing grant. These grants come with few constraints and they leave the state or locality with almost complete discretion over how they want to spend the money. All grants given by the federal government come with constraints crosscutting requirements. Crossover sanctions are federal requirements that mandate the grant recipients to pass and implement certain laws or principles as a condition of receiving the fund. Sometimes the federal government issues action-requiring direct orders to the states and localities but don’t provide any financial support for that action. These  orders are called unfunded mandates. These grants have all helped in shifting power from the state governments to the federal governments, but there has been a new form of federalism that has been shifting power back to the state governments. This form of federalism is called new federalism. New federalism is the belief that states should receive more power and authority and less money from the federal government. Block grants were the type of grants that were preferred in new federalism. They are federal grants-in-aid that are given for general policy areas and leave states and localities with wide discretion on how to spend the money within the designated policy area. Unlike new federalism, ad hoc federalism is a form of government that could differ from time to time. Ad hoc federalism depends on the issue at hand. It is the process of choosing a state-centered or nation-centered view of federalism on the basis of political or partisan convenience. In other words, ad hoc federalism can be swayed either towards the states or towards the federal government by whichever party has the dominant hand in Congress. The Bush-era was described as entering the United States into ad hoc federalism. This type of federalism is not definitive. To sum things up, federalism cannot be described in one single sentence. Federalism has its ins, outs, ups, downs, and can be all over the place. Federalism’s many forms are what make this system of government unique and different from the others. It has taken the United States into some fortunate and some not-so-fortunate times. It is a complicated concept that will continue to change as the United States advances even further into the future.